Returning an agility dog to sport after TPLO surgery requires more than standard recovery. The standard 8 to 12 week bone healing protocol restores a dog to normal household function.

Returning to agility -- a high-impact sport involving jumping, sharp turns, weave poles, and contact obstacles -- requires a further 4 to 6 months of structured conditioning on top of that foundation.

Quick answer: Most agility dogs return to training 7 to 9 months post-TPLO. The Balanced Dog confirms 80% returned before 9 months (average 7.5 months). Bone healing at 8 to 12 weeks is the starting point. Return to sport requires muscle symmetry, pain-free movement, and a graduated protocol with vet clearance.

Key takeaways

• The return-to-agility timeline averages 7 to 9 months: The Balanced Dog confirms 80% returned before 9 months, average 7.5 months; 3 to 6 months reflects light training, not full competition
• Bone healing at 8 to 12 weeks is the starting point, not the endpoint: high-impact agility may require 4 to 6 more months; healed bone does not mean rebuilt muscle
• Agility-specific demands require agility-specific conditioning: jumping, tight turns, weave poles, and contacts generate forces far greater than walking; the dog must be conditioned for these before returning
• All dogs with agility return goals need a return-to-sport protocol: it adds sport-specific movement, progressive jumping, and fitness benchmarks beyond the standard recovery protocol
• Veterinary clearance at each phase is non-negotiable: vet or surgeon clearance is required before resuming training; no benchmark should be self-assessed
• Not all dogs will reach pre-surgery performance: most regain significant function but some need training changes to reduce joint stress

Why agility is a higher bar than normal recovery

Normal TPLO recovery targets return to household mobility: walking, light running, stairs, and play. Agility sport involves:

• Jumping: impact forces on landing of 2 to 3 times body weight
• Tight turns at speed: high lateral shear forces on the stifle
• Weave poles: rapid lateral flexion and extension
• Contact obstacles (A-frame, dog walk, teeter): climbing and controlled descent under dynamic loading

Each of these demands requires not just healed bone but fully rebuilt muscle, coordinated neuromuscular control, and joint proprioception. These take months to restore after TPLO.

SustainableVet.org confirms: dogs in sports or agility should reintroduce jumps and running only after veterinary clearance; swimming or uphill walking maintains muscle tone during the conditioning phase.

The return-to-sport timeline

Phase 1: bone healing (weeks 0 to 12)

Standard TPLO recovery. Strict confinement, graduated leash walking, and passive range-of-motion exercises. No running, jumping, or agility activity of any kind.

Radiographic bone healing is confirmed at the 8 to 12 week recheck. This is the gate that opens Phase 2.

Phase 2: rebuilding foundation fitness (months 3 to 5)

After bone healing is confirmed, the focus shifts to rebuilding the muscle mass and neuromuscular coordination that atrophied during the restriction period.

Activities during Phase 2:

• Progressive leash walking with duration increasing weekly
• Hydrotherapy (underwater treadmill) for muscle building without joint impact
• Hill walking (controlled inclines) to load the hip extensors and stifle stabilizers
• Balance and proprioception work (wobble boards, cavaletti poles)
• Core strengthening exercises

TPLO Info confirms: overall return to agility takes around 3 to 6 months; this period of rebuilding is what fills the gap between bone healing and sport re-entry.

Phase 3: sport-specific conditioning (months 5 to 7)

Once the dog has rebuilt baseline fitness, sport-specific conditioning begins. This is distinct from the standard recovery protocol.

Activities:

• Controlled jumping starting very low (4 inches for a dog that jumps 24 inches in competition) and increasing progressively over 6 to 8 weeks
• Slow figure-8 work and curved running to restore stifle lateral mechanics
• Individual weave pole work at slow speed before full weave sequence
• Contact obstacle approach and exit work at slow, controlled speed
• Video gait assessment to identify any asymmetry or compensation patterns

Petcarepartners.co confirms: most vets suggest a waiting period of 4 to 6 months for running and fetch; for agility, add a further structured sport-specific phase on top of this.

Phase 4: return to full competition (months 7 to 9+)

Full competition resumption follows veterinary clearance of the sport-specific conditioning phase. The criteria for clearance include:

• Pain-free movement through full range of stifle motion
• Muscle symmetry (thigh circumference equal bilaterally)
• Confident single-leg weight bearing during agility-specific movements
• No lameness following a full practice session
• Surgeon clearance based on physical and radiographic assessment

The Balanced Dog confirms: it typically takes 7 to 9 months to return to sport; 80% of dogs returned to agility before 9 months with a good rehabilitation and return-to-sport program.

Factors that affect the return timeline

Dog's age: younger dogs (under 4 years) typically rebuild muscle faster than older dogs. Senior dogs may take 10 to 12 months or longer.

Dog's pre-surgical fitness: well-conditioned sport dogs with strong baseline muscle mass rebuild faster than deconditioned dogs. Body condition score at the time of surgery matters.

Adherence to the restriction protocol: dogs that were overactive during weeks 1 to 6 may have developed micro-complications or delayed healing that shifts the timeline.

Concurrent meniscal tear: dogs that had a meniscal tear treated at the time of TPLO may need additional time, particularly if a late meniscal tear occurs during the return-to-sport phase.

Bilateral CCL disease: dogs with CCL rupture on the second side during or after recovery for the first require the full protocol on the second side before bilateral agility work resumes.

SustainableVet.org confirms: average recovery time to agility is about seven months; some dogs start controlled activity at six months, while others take up to two years.

Using a certified canine rehabilitation therapist

For agility dogs, professional rehabilitation is strongly recommended rather than a home-only protocol. Certified canine rehabilitation practitioners (CCRPs) provide:

• Biomechanical gait analysis to detect compensatory movement patterns before return to sport
• Underwater treadmill protocols calibrated to the specific demands of agility
• Sport-specific functional testing to determine readiness
• Individualized return-to-sport programs

The Balanced Dog confirms: surgery is just the start; a good-quality rehabilitation and return-to-sport program is instrumental in giving the dog the best chance at returning to competitive agility.

For the recovery timeline, see what to expect after TPLO surgery in dogs. For physical therapy timing, see when to start physical therapy after TPLO surgery.

For recovery exercises, see TPLO recovery exercises for dogs. For the failure rate overview, see TPLO failure rate in dogs.

Frequently asked questions

My agility dog had TPLO 6 months ago and is moving well. Can she start jumping?

Six months is within the average return-to-sport window but requires veterinary assessment before starting jumping.

The criteria -- muscle symmetry, pain-free full range of motion, confident single-leg weight bearing -- must be met and confirmed by your vet or rehabilitation therapist before any jumping begins.

Do not self-assess readiness.

Will my dog ever compete at the same level as before TPLO?

Many dogs do return to pre-injury competitive levels, especially those with strong pre-surgical conditioning and an excellent rehabilitation program.

SustainableVet.org confirms most dogs regain significant function and can participate in agility, though not all will reach pre-injury performance levels. The Balanced Dog study confirms 80% returned before 9 months.

Should I lower my dog's jump height after TPLO?

Discuss with your vet. Some dogs perform best at a jump height one level below their pre-surgery height to reduce cumulative joint loading. Others return to their full height without adjustment.

This is an individual decision based on the dog's age, size, arthritis level, and post-recovery movement quality.

Can I use a FitPaws or conditioning equipment at home?

Yes -- proprioception and balance equipment (wobble boards, FitPaws equipment, balance pads) is appropriate during Phase 2 and Phase 3 under the direction of your rehabilitation therapist.

These tools help rebuild the neuromuscular coordination needed for agility-specific movements. Always use on non-slip flooring.

What happens if my dog tears the other CCL during agility return?

Bilateral CCL disease is common (30 to 40% of dogs develop it). If the second stifle becomes symptomatic during the return-to-agility phase, the rehabilitation program pauses and the second stifle is assessed.

The return-to-agility timeline resets based on the second surgery date. Most dogs with bilateral TPLO can still return to agility.

Resources

• The Balanced Dog. Returning to Dog Agility After TPLO Surgery. the-balanced-dog.com
• TPLO Info. Can You Resume Dog Agility Training After TPLO Surgery? tploinfo.com
• SustainableVet. When Can Dogs Resume Agility Training Post-TPLO? sustainablevet.org
• ACVS. Cranial Cruciate Ligament Disease. acvs.org

High-quality radiographs are the foundation of TPLO planning and post-operative assessment. The tibial plateau angle (TPA) measurement that determines plate size, osteotomy arc, and rotation amount depends entirely on image quality.

A poorly positioned radiograph produces inaccurate TPA measurements, which can lead to undercorrection, overcorrection, or incorrect implant selection.

Understanding what makes a TPLO radiograph diagnostically reliable is essential for any veterinary professional involved in TPLO cases.

Quick answer: A diagnostic TPLO lateral radiograph requires: stifle and hock at approximately 90 degrees; tibia and fibula superimposed throughout; femoral condyles superimposed; the entire tibia visible; and the beam centered over the stifle. Femoral condyle non-superimposition is the most common cause of TPA measurement error.

Key takeaways

• Limb positioning is the single most important variable for TPA accuracy: limb positioning affects the appearance of anatomic landmarks used for TPA determination
• The femoral condyles must be superimposed on the lateral view: MDPI research confirms 3 mm non-superimposition produces 90.6% of measurements within 1 degree of true TPA; error increases substantially beyond 3 mm
• The stifle and hock should both be at approximately 90 degrees for the lateral view: this is required for accurate tibial plateau angle measurement
• Sedation is recommended: a sedated dog allows accurate limb placement without motion artifact; an unsedated dog in pain cannot maintain the required positioning
• The TPA averages 23 to 29 degrees in most dogs: some small breeds average higher; dogs with TPA over 30 degrees may be poor candidates for extracapsular repair or TTA
• Post-operative TPA target is 5 to 6.5 degrees: achieving this angle eliminates cranial tibial thrust; post-operative radiographs confirm whether the target was achieved

Why radiograph quality matters for TPLO

TPLO planning is based entirely on the pre-operative lateral stifle radiograph. From this image, the surgeon:

• Measures the TPA (tibial plateau angle)
• Selects the appropriate osteotomy saw blade radius
• Plans the rotation amount needed to achieve the target post-operative TPA (5 to 6.5 degrees)
• Selects the implant size (plate and screw dimensions)

A 2-degree error in TPA measurement from a poorly positioned radiograph can result in a plate one size too small or large, or an osteotomy rotation that undercorrects or overcorrects the joint.

Today's Veterinary Practice confirms: a well-positioned lateral stifle radiograph is essential for accurate diagnostic interpretation and TPA measurement; correct tibial alignment is most important for TPA measurement.

The lateral (mediolateral) projection

This is the critical image for TPA measurement.

Patient positioning

Body position: the dog is placed in lateral recumbency with the limb of interest (affected stifle) closest to the table. The limb is extended slightly away from the body.

Stifle angle: the stifle is positioned at approximately 90 degrees of flexion.

Hock angle: the hock (tarsus) is positioned at approximately 90 degrees of flexion.

Cave Vet Specialists confirms: ensure the stifle and hock are collimated into the area of interest; keep the leg in a natural position; place an appropriate-sized plate under the limb.

Femoral condyles: both femoral hemicondyles should be precisely superimposed. This is the most technically demanding aspect of lateral stifle radiography. To achieve superimposition, the opposite limb is elevated with foam wedges or a triangular positioning aid to allow the limb of interest to lie flat and parallel to the table.

Cave Vet Specialists confirms: place the non-interest limb onto wedges to tilt the limb of interest centrally; place a triangular wedge or sandbag on the opposite side.

Tibia-fibula superimposition: the tibia and fibula should be superimposed throughout their full length. If the tibia and fibula are not superimposed, the tibia is rotated relative to the plate -- and this same rotation is captured in the TPA measurement.

What to include

The radiograph must include the entire tibia from the tibial plateau (top) to at least the distal metaphysis (ideally the entire bone).

Today's Veterinary Practice confirms: the x-ray beam should be centered over the stifle joint with collimation to include the entire tibia.

The most common positioning errors

Femoral condyle non-superimposition: the most frequent and most impactful error. Caused by the hindquarters tilting, the contralateral limb not elevated sufficiently, or the dog being unsedated and shifting position.

The MDPI Animals research quantified the impact: 3 mm of non-superimposition produces about 1 degree of TPA error; errors increase substantially beyond 3 mm.

Tibial rotation: the tibia is internally or externally rotated relative to the true mediolateral plane. This occurs when the hock is not held in a natural position. Rotation changes the apparent slope of the tibial plateau and produces a falsely high or low TPA.

Today's Veterinary Practice confirms: the tibia can easily be rotated with CCL injury even when the femur appears straight.

Incomplete tibia: if the distal tibia is cut off by collimation, the surgeon cannot assess the full tibial axis -- which is required for TPA measurement.

The caudocranial (CrCd or AP) projection

The caudocranial view assesses limb alignment, varus and valgus deformity, and tibial torsion. It is a standard part of the pre-operative TPLO radiograph set.

Patient positioning

The dog is placed in sternal recumbency or dorsal recumbency with the affected limb extended caudally (toward the x-ray plate). The stifle and hock should be visible.

Rita Leibinger confirms: the AP projection must have the stifle and tarsus included for the attending surgeon to assess limb alignment.

DVM360 confirms: on the caudocranial view, the medial margin of the tuber calcis should align with the center of the distal tibia, confirming the absence of tibial torsion.

Calibration for surgical planning

When radiographs will be used for surgical planning (plate size selection), a calibration marker must be placed at the same level as the stifle joint.

This allows the surgeon to scale the digital image to real-world measurements.

Rita Leibinger confirms: image calibration does not alter TPA measurement (the angle is size-independent), but it enables radiographs to be used for surgical plate-size planning.

Post-operative radiographs

After TPLO, radiographs are taken:

• Immediately post-surgery: to confirm osteotomy position, plate position, screw placement, and achieved post-operative TPA
• At 6 to 8 weeks: to assess early bone healing and callus formation
• At 12 weeks: to confirm bone union before lifting activity restrictions

What a good post-operative radiograph shows

• Post-operative TPA of approximately 5 to 6.5 degrees
• No screws violating the joint space
• Plate in correct medial position on the tibia
• Osteotomy gap that is progressively narrowing on follow-up films (callus formation)

Warning signs on post-operative radiographs

• Screw tip in the joint space (requires removal of that screw)
• Plate migration from original position
• Peri-implant radiolucent halos (suggests implant loosening or infection)
• Osteotomy gap not narrowing by 8 weeks (suggests delayed union or infection)

For the TPA measurement guide, see what causes TPLO surgery in dogs. For post-operative complications, see 15 common complications after TPLO surgery.

For the plate infection guide, see TPLO plate infection signs and treatment. For bone healing information, see TPLO bone healing time in dogs.

Frequently asked questions

Does the dog need to be sedated for TPLO radiographs?

Sedation is strongly recommended and preferred. An unsedated dog -- particularly one in pain from CCL disease -- cannot maintain the precise positioning required for accurate TPA measurement.

Even minor position changes between preparation and exposure produce significant error. Sedation allows the technician to position the limb correctly and hold it in place without the dog shifting.

Why does the hock position matter for the lateral view?

The hock angle affects the position of the tibia relative to the table and the imaging plate.

When the hock deviates from approximately 90 degrees, the tibia is either elevated or depressed at the distal end, which changes the apparent angle of the tibial plateau.

This error is captured in the TPA measurement.

What is a normal TPA range and when should TPLO be recommended?

Today's Veterinary Practice confirms the average TPA in most dogs is 23 to 29 degrees. Some small breeds have higher averages.

Dogs with TPA greater than 30 degrees may be poor candidates for extracapsular repair or TTA.

TPLO is appropriate for dogs of all TPA values -- the procedure specifically corrects whatever TPA angle the dog presents with.

Can the same radiograph be used for both diagnosis and surgical planning?

Yes, if it is of adequate quality and includes a calibration marker.

Diagnostic-only radiographs taken without a calibration marker can confirm CCL disease and measure TPA, but cannot be used for plate-size surgical planning.

Including a calibration marker at the time of acquisition allows a single radiograph to serve both purposes.

What happens if the TPA is measured incorrectly pre-operatively?

If the pre-operative TPA is underestimated, the surgeon may under-rotate the osteotomy and fail to reach the target 5 to 6.5 degree post-operative TPA.

This results in residual cranial tibial thrust and potentially ongoing instability. If overestimated, overcorrection is possible.

This underscores why positioning accuracy at the time of radiography is critical -- errors propagate through the entire surgical plan.

Resources

• Cave Vet Specialists. Tips for TPLO Radiographs. cave-vet-specialists.co.uk
• Today's Veterinary Practice. Cruciate Disease: How and Why to Measure Tibial Plateau Angle. todaysveterinarypractice.com
• MDPI Animals. The Effect of Femur Positioning on Measurement of Tibial Plateau Angle. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
• Rita Leibinger. TPLO Surgical Technique. leibinger.vet

Bilateral CCL (cranial cruciate ligament) disease -- affecting both stifle joints -- is common in dogs.

Midvalley Animal Clinic confirms 30 to 40% of dogs with unilateral CCL rupture will eventually develop rupture of the contralateral CCL.

When both stifles are significantly affected, the decision between simultaneous bilateral TPLO and staged TPLO is one of the most important surgical planning discussions an owner will have.

Quick answer: Simultaneous bilateral TPLO operates on both stifles in one anesthetic event, offering a single recovery period and lower total cost. Staged TPLO operates on one leg at a time, reducing anesthetic risk. Simultaneous is preferred for healthy, large dogs with both stifles unstable. Staged is preferred for older, smaller, or compromised dogs.

Key takeaways

• 30 to 40% of dogs with unilateral CCL disease develop contralateral CCL rupture: bilateral TPLO may be planned proactively at presentation or urgently when the second CCL ruptures during recovery
• Simultaneous bilateral TPLO offers a single anesthetic event and shorter overall recovery: both knees heal together; total cost is lower than two staged surgeries
• Staged bilateral TPLO reduces surgical risk: each surgery is shorter; the dog has one functional leg during recovery; preferred for older or medically compromised dogs
• The critical challenge of simultaneous bilateral TPLO is recovery: with both rear legs restricted, owners must provide intensive physical support (slings) for the first 2 to 3 weeks
• PubMed research (176 bilateral TPLO cases) found no significant difference in overall complication rates between simultaneous and staged approaches in appropriately selected patients
• Large dogs with strong front limbs handle simultaneous TPLO better: smaller or weaker dogs benefit from the staged approach due to greater difficulty bearing weight on two compromised rear legs

Why bilateral CCL disease is common

CCL disease in dogs is degenerative, not purely traumatic.

The same factors that caused one CCL to rupture -- degenerative fiber changes, abnormal tibial plateau angle, breed predisposition, obesity, and mechanical overload -- are typically present in both stifles.

When a dog ruptures one CCL, it often shifts weight onto the contralateral leg, increasing the load on the already-compromised contralateral CCL. This accelerates degeneration and the timeline to rupture.

The clinical implication: even when only one stifle is symptomatic at presentation, the surgeon will typically assess both stifles.

Pre-operative radiographs of both stifles help determine whether the contralateral joint shows early instability, effusion, or an elevated TPA that warrants planning for bilateral surgery.

Simultaneous bilateral TPLO

Overview

Both stifles are operated on during a single general anesthetic event. The dog is positioned, the first TPLO is performed, the dog is repositioned, and the second TPLO is performed.

Total surgical time is approximately 3 to 4 hours.

Advantages

Single anesthetic event: the dog is exposed to general anesthesia once rather than twice. Each anesthetic event carries inherent risk; eliminating one event reduces cumulative anesthetic risk.

Faster total recovery: both legs heal simultaneously. Rather than 8 to 12 weeks of restriction for the first leg, then a second 8 to 12 week restriction for the second leg, the dog completes one restriction period covering both.

SustainableVet.org confirms: when both knees are corrected in a single surgery, the dog undergoes just one healing phase rather than two separate ones, returning to normal activity sooner.

Lower total cost: while the simultaneous surgery costs more than a single TPLO, it is less than two completely separate procedures with individual hospitalization, anesthesia fees, and post-operative care expenses.

SustainableVet.org confirms: simultaneous TPLO often reduces overall costs by avoiding duplicate anesthesia, hospitalization, and post-operative care fees.

Risks and challenges

Both rear legs are compromised simultaneously: the dog cannot transfer weight to a strong rear leg during the recovery period. All rear-limb support requires either front-limb loading (difficult for large breeds) or active owner assistance via sling.

Increased owner demand: SustainableVet.org confirms post-surgical care is more challenging because the dog cannot rely on a strong leg for support, requiring owners to provide intensive assistance.

Longer anesthetic duration: total surgical time of 3 to 4 hours for bilateral vs. 1.5 to 2 hours for unilateral increases the physiological burden of anesthesia and surgery.

Potentially higher complication rate in some populations: the PubMed 176-case study compared simultaneous and staged TPLO complications and found no significant overall difference, but the study population was highly selected.

Staged bilateral TPLO

Overview

The more significantly affected stifle is operated on first. After a full recovery (typically 8 to 12 weeks until bone healing is confirmed), the second stifle is operated on.

Advantages

Reduced surgical risk per event: each procedure is a standard unilateral TPLO, carrying the same risk profile as any single TPLO.

One functional rear leg during recovery: the dog can weight-bear on the unoperated leg immediately after the first surgery. This simplifies nursing care significantly and allows most dogs to stand and toilet independently.

Better option for older or compromised dogs: SustainableVet.org confirms older dogs or those with other health issues benefit from a staged approach to reduce surgical risk. Dogs with cardiac, renal, hepatic, or respiratory disease may not tolerate a 3 to 4 hour bilateral procedure safely.

Disadvantages

Two separate anesthetic events: two exposures to general anesthesia over a 3 to 6 month period.

Longer total recovery timeline: the dog may not reach full bilateral function for 6 to 9 months or longer from the date of the first surgery.

Higher total cost: two separate surgeries, two hospitalizations, two sets of post-operative medications and supplies.

Risk of contralateral rupture during the first recovery: the contralateral leg bears additional load during the first recovery period, accelerating degeneration. In some dogs, the second CCL ruptures acutely during the first recovery -- this forces an emergency decision about timing of the second surgery.

Which approach is right for a given dog?

Generally prefer simultaneous bilateral TPLO when:

• Both stifles are confirmed significantly unstable at presentation
• The dog is young, healthy, and large with strong front limb musculature
• The owner is able to provide intensive physical support during the bilateral recovery period
• The surgeon is experienced with bilateral TPLO technique
• Financial considerations favor the single-event approach

Generally prefer staged bilateral TPLO when:

• Only one stifle is currently significantly symptomatic (the second may be monitored and staged only if it progresses)
• The dog is older, small, or has significant concurrent health conditions
• The owner's ability to provide intensive bilateral recovery support is limited
• The anesthetic risk for a prolonged bilateral procedure is elevated

SustainableVet.org confirms: large dogs with strong front limbs may handle simultaneous TPLO better, while smaller or weaker dogs may benefit from a staged approach.

Bilateral TPLO recovery: what to expect

Simultaneous recovery

Weeks 1 to 2: the most demanding period. Both rear legs are compromised. The dog requires a sling for all mobility. Bathroom trips require active owner support.

Crate rest at all other times.

Weeks 2 to 6: gradual improvement. Both legs begin partial weight bearing. Sling use may reduce but is still needed for most dogs on stairs or uneven surfaces.

Weeks 6 to 12: radiographic assessment of both osteotomies. Activity increases based on healing of both legs.

Key equipment for bilateral TPLO recovery

• Lifting harness or rear-end sling (essential, not optional)
• Non-slip mats throughout the house
• Ramps for car access (no jumping in or out)
• Low dog beds at floor level

For the standard TPLO recovery timeline, see what to expect after TPLO surgery in dogs. For confinement advice, see how to confine your dog after TPLO surgery.

For post-op tips, see 10 essential TPLO recovery tips for pet owners. For the cost guide, see TPLO surgery cost in dogs.

Frequently asked questions

How will I know if my dog needs bilateral TPLO?

Your vet will assess both stifles during the physical examination.

Signs that the contralateral stifle is also affected include drawer sign or tibial thrust on the second side, joint effusion on radiographs, or intermittent lameness on both rear legs.

Both stifles are typically radiographed at the pre-operative planning visit.

Can the second CCL rupture while my dog is recovering from the first TPLO?

Yes. This is one of the main risks of staged TPLO. The unoperated leg bears more weight during recovery, accelerating degeneration.

If the second CCL ruptures acutely, the dog becomes bilateral suddenly and the timing of the second surgery must be reassessed with your vet.

Is bilateral TPLO safe for large breeds?

Yes, when appropriately selected. Large dogs with good front limb strength typically handle the bilateral recovery better than small dogs.

The challenge is the nursing care requirement, which is significant regardless of size. Ensure you have the physical ability to support a large dog in a sling before committing to simultaneous surgery.

My dog needs bilateral TPLO but I can only afford one surgery now. What should I do?

This is a common situation. Staged TPLO is appropriate and legitimate. Operate on the more severely affected stifle first and monitor the second closely.

Discuss weight management and controlled activity to reduce load on the second stifle during the first recovery. Plan financially for the second surgery.

Do both TPLO plates stay in permanently?

Yes, unless a complication (infection, implant failure) necessitates removal.

If both plates require removal, it can be done as a single procedure or staged, depending on the reason for removal and the healing status of each osteotomy.

Resources

• SustainableVet. Bilateral TPLO Surgery. sustainablevet.org
• PubMed. Comparison of Intra- and Postoperative Complications Between Bilateral Simultaneous and Staged TPLO. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
• Midvalley Animal Clinic. Pre-Op Instructions for TPLO. midvalleyanimalclinic.com
• ACVS. Cranial Cruciate Ligament Disease. acvs.org

Age alone does not disqualify a dog from TPLO surgery.

The decision for an older or senior dog depends on overall health status, concurrent conditions, quality of life goals, and individual assessment -- not a chronological cutoff.

Many senior dogs benefit substantially from TPLO, while some older dogs are better managed conservatively. Understanding how to approach this decision is essential.

Quick answer: TPLO is viable for most older dogs with CCL rupture who are medically suitable for anesthesia. Published data estimates 85 to 90% of senior dogs regain near-normal or improved limb function. Age increases anesthetic risk and slows recovery -- manageable factors, not contraindications. Pre-surgical bloodwork and cardiac evaluation reduce risk.

Key takeaways

• Age alone is not a contraindication for TPLO: a comprehensive veterinary assessment is essential; the decision is based on health status, not chronological age
• 85 to 90% of senior dogs regain near-normal or improved limb function: comparable to the 90 to 95% general TPLO population; older dogs achieve similar success with appropriate post-operative care
• The primary risk factors for senior dogs are anesthetic risk and comorbidities: older dogs are more likely to have heart disease, kidney disease, or arthritis complicating anesthesia; pre-surgical screening manages these risks
• Recovery takes longer in older dogs: senior dogs need a longer recovery with extra monitoring and rehabilitation; timelines should be extended and expectations adjusted
• Conservative management is appropriate for some older dogs: very elderly dogs with limited activity needs, multiple health concerns, or advanced concurrent arthritis may benefit more from conservative management
• The quality of life cost of not operating is significant: untreated CCL rupture means chronic joint pain, progressive arthritis, and severe mobility impairment; TPLO offers a better quality of remaining life for many senior dogs

What changes with age in TPLO candidates

Anesthetic risk

General anesthesia in older dogs carries higher risk than in young adults. The primary reasons:

Cardiovascular function: cardiac output typically decreases with age. Dogs with occult cardiomyopathy, valve disease, or arrhythmias have reduced ability to compensate for the cardiovascular demands of general anesthesia. Pre-surgical cardiac evaluation (auscultation, chest radiographs, echocardiography if indicated) identifies and quantifies this risk.

Renal function: anesthesia and NSAIDs both affect renal perfusion. Dogs with reduced GFR are at risk for acute kidney injury. Pre-surgical blood chemistry (BUN, creatinine, SDMA) establishes baseline renal function and guides anesthetic protocol choices.

Hepatic function: the liver metabolizes most anesthetic agents. Hepatic insufficiency prolongs drug effect and increases toxicity risk. Pre-surgical liver enzyme panel and bile acids test if enzymes are elevated.

Thermoregulation: older dogs lose body heat more quickly during anesthesia. Active warming protocols (circulating warm water blankets, warm IV fluids, warm recovery environment) are particularly important.

Healing and regeneration

Bone healing takes longer in older dogs. The osteotomy that consolidates in 8 weeks in a 3-year-old Labrador may take 10 to 14 weeks in a 10-year-old dog.

Radiographic confirmation of healing before lifting restrictions is therefore even more critical in senior dogs.

Muscle rebuilding is also slower. Full muscle recovery may take 6 to 9 months rather than 4 to 6 months in older dogs.

Pre-existing arthritis

Most older dogs with CCL disease have concurrent arthritis in the affected stifle at the time of presentation.

This does not prevent TPLO from providing benefit, but it affects the baseline from which the dog recovers.

Upland Animal Hospital confirms: dogs with advanced degenerative joint disease may not be ideal candidates; existing joint damage could limit improvement in mobility.

The realistic expectation is not a return to young-dog mobility, but elimination of instability pain and slowing of further arthritis progression -- both of which meaningfully improve quality of life.

Pre-surgical assessment for older dogs

The pre-surgical workup for a senior dog should include:

Complete blood count: rule out anemia, infection, and thrombocytopenia.

Blood chemistry panel: kidney function (BUN, creatinine, SDMA), liver function (ALT, ALP, GGT), albumin, glucose.

Urinalysis: assess renal concentrating ability and rule out urinary tract infection (a source of bacteremia that can seed the implant).

Chest radiographs: assess cardiac silhouette and pulmonary fields for occult cardiac disease or pulmonary abnormalities.

Electrocardiography: if cardiac auscultation reveals arrhythmia or murmur.

Echocardiography: if the cardiac evaluation suggests significant structural disease; quantifies severity and guides anesthetic protocol.

Blood pressure: hypertension is common in older dogs and affects anesthetic management.

Companion Animal Hospital confirms: older patients are more likely to have heart disease, kidney problems, or arthritis complicating anesthesia and recovery. Each patient is evaluated thoroughly to weigh complications against expected benefits.

When TPLO is appropriate for older dogs

TPLO is generally appropriate when:

• Pre-surgical assessment confirms the dog is medically suitable for general anesthesia
• The dog has a good quality of life before the CCL rupture
• The owner is committed to the post-operative care demands
• Life expectancy is at least 1 to 2 years (enough time to benefit from the recovery period)
• Pain from CCL instability is significantly reducing the dog's quality of life

SustainableVet.org confirms: 85 to 90% of senior dogs regain near-normal or improved limb function. Older dogs achieve similar success rates when conditions like arthritis are managed well.

When conservative management may be more appropriate

Conservative management (strict rest, NSAIDs, physical therapy, weight management) may be more appropriate when:

• The dog has severe concurrent cardiac, renal, or hepatic disease that significantly elevates anesthetic mortality risk
• Pre-existing arthritis is so advanced that functional improvement from TPLO is unlikely
• The dog has very limited mobility needs (sedentary older dog in minimal pain before the CCL event)
• Life expectancy is significantly limited by a concurrent condition

Chewy confirms: TPLO can be performed in dogs of any age, but your veterinarian will consider overall health in senior dogs.

Upland Animal Hospital confirms: very elderly dogs might benefit more from conservative management if they have limited activity needs and multiple health concerns.

Adjusting expectations and the recovery plan for older dogs

For older dogs undergoing TPLO:

• The restriction period is the same (8 to 12 weeks) but radiographic healing may take longer; follow-up imaging should be extended if healing is not confirmed at the standard 6 and 12 week timepoints
• Recovery plans should include additional physiotherapy support, hydrotherapy, and pain management beyond the standard protocol
• Concurrent arthritis management (joint supplements, periodic NSAIDs, hydrotherapy) continues long-term after recovery
• Body condition monitoring is critical -- older dogs are more likely to gain weight during restriction

SustainableVet.org confirms: senior dogs need a longer recovery with extra monitoring and rehabilitation. Physical therapy helps, but patience and adjusted expectations are essential.

For the surgery overview, see what is TPLO surgery in dogs?. For recovery, see post-surgery recovery after TPLO in dogs. For long-term outcomes, see long-term outcomes of TPLO surgery.

For anesthesia protocol, see TPLO anesthesia protocol in dogs.

Frequently asked questions

My dog is 11 years old with a torn CCL. Should I get TPLO?

Age 11 is not a contraindication. The decision depends on your dog's overall health. Schedule a thorough pre-surgical assessment including bloodwork, urinalysis, and chest radiographs.

If your dog is medically suitable for anesthesia and has a reasonable life expectancy, TPLO will likely provide a better quality of remaining life than conservative management of an unstable stifle.

Does TPLO take longer to heal in older dogs?

Yes. Bone healing in older dogs typically takes 2 to 4 weeks longer than in young adults.

Muscle recovery also takes longer -- expect 6 to 9 months rather than 4 to 6 months. Radiographic follow-up should reflect this extended timeline.

Is the anesthetic risk for TPLO too high in senior dogs?

This depends entirely on the individual dog's health status. Pre-surgical assessment quantifies anesthetic risk. Many senior dogs in good health tolerate TPLO anesthesia well.

Dogs with significant cardiac or renal disease have elevated risk that must be weighed against the benefit of surgical stabilization. There is no population-level answer -- only individual assessments.

Can conservative management work for an older dog with CCL rupture?

For some older dogs, yes.

For most medium and large dogs over 15 kg with complete CCL rupture, conservative management does not restore normal joint stability, and chronic pain with progressive OA is the expected outcome.

Whether conservative management is appropriate depends on the dog's baseline activity level, severity of rupture, concurrent health status, and owner goals.

What is the recovery quality like for older dogs after TPLO?

With appropriate rehabilitation and arthritis management, most older dogs achieve meaningful improvement in mobility and pain control after TPLO.

The realistic goal is not the function of a young adult dog but rather elimination of the pain of joint instability and a return to comfortable daily activity.

SustainableVet.org confirms: when combined with weight management and physical therapy, TPLO offers lasting relief, often keeping dogs active well into their senior years.

Resources

• SustainableVet. TPLO Surgery for Older Dogs. sustainablevet.org
• Companion Animal Hospital Maize. Senior Dogs and TPLO. maizevet.com
• Upland Animal Hospital. What Is TPLO Surgery in Dogs? uplandanimalhospital.com
• ACVS. Cranial Cruciate Ligament Disease. acvs.org

Physical therapy after TPLO begins on day one -- not after the bone heals. The question is not whether to start, but which type is appropriate at each stage.

Early rehabilitation is about pain management and encouraging weight bearing. Later rehabilitation is about restoring muscle mass, range of motion, and functional strength.

The timing for each phase is defined by healing biology, not by how the dog appears to feel.

Quick answer: Physical therapy begins on day 1 with leash walks and cold therapy. Passive range-of-motion exercises start at days 3 to 5. Hydrotherapy begins at weeks 2 to 3. Strengthening increases from weeks 4 to 8. Plans complete by weeks 8 to 12; full recovery takes 4 to 6 months after TPLO surgery.

Key takeaways

• Leash walking begins within 24 hours of surgery: TPLO Info confirms short 5-minute walks multiple times daily from day 1; early weight bearing maintains muscle mass and bone healing
• Passive range-of-motion exercises start at days 3 to 5: gentle manual flexion and extension of the stifle maintains joint mobility during restricted activity
• Hydrotherapy can begin around weeks 2 to 3 after incision healing is confirmed; underwater treadmill provides resistance and buoyancy simultaneously
• Professional rehabilitation offers advantages over at-home protocols: certified therapists provide therapeutic laser, TENS, underwater treadmill, and individualized monitoring
• Strengthening exercises begin around weeks 3 to 4 when the dog consistently bears weight; cavaletti poles, weight-shifting, and balance work rebuild lost muscle
• Free running and high-impact activities resume only after radiographic bone healing confirmation at weeks 8 to 12; earlier return risks osteotomy failure

Phase 1: immediate post-surgical period (days 1 to 14)

What begins immediately

Leash walking: begins within 24 hours of surgery. TPLO Info confirms short 5-minute leash walks multiple times daily from day one. These walks are bathroom trips only in the first week -- not exercise walks. The goal is to maintain the neural stimulus for weight bearing and to prevent the complete disuse that leads to rapid muscle atrophy.

Veterinary Partner VIN confirms: Phase 1 begins immediately after surgery; slow, controlled leash walks 3 to 4 times daily for 5 to 10 minutes are the primary activity.

Cold therapy (icing): ice applied to the incision site for 10 to 15 minutes after each walk during the first 3 to 5 days. TPLO Info recommends icing the incision directly for the first 3 to 5 days post-surgery. Cold therapy reduces local inflammation and pain, making the dog more comfortable and more likely to bear weight.

Edmonton Veterinary TPLO protocol confirms: time physical therapy exercises approximately 30 minutes after pain medications are given so the dog is most comfortable during exercise.

Passive range-of-motion exercises (days 3 to 5)

PROM exercises are gentle manual flexion and extension of the stifle joint. SustainableVet.org confirms: gentle passive exercises usually start within 3 to 5 days post-surgery.

How to perform PROM:

• Hold the thigh and lower leg, not the joint itself
• Slowly flex the stifle toward the chest (as far as comfortable without resistance)
• Slowly extend the stifle toward straight
• 5 to 10 repetitions, 2 to 3 times daily
• Never force the range -- stop at the point of resistance or discomfort

PROM maintains joint cartilage health, prevents fibrous tissue formation in the joint, and maintains range of motion during the period when the dog is resting.

Phase 2: early rehabilitation (weeks 2 to 4)

What begins at the 2-week recheck

The 2-week recheck confirms incision healing and reviews early recovery. If healing is proceeding normally, Phase 2 activities begin.

Increased leash walk duration: TPLO Info recommends increasing walk duration by up to 5 minutes per week from the 2-week baseline. Vetplayas confirms: by week 2, controlled leash walks should be extended to promote muscle strength and flexibility.

Hydrotherapy: SustainableVet.org and the Vetplayas recovery guide both confirm hydrotherapy can begin around week 2 to 3, once the incision is healed. Underwater treadmill therapy provides three simultaneous benefits:

• Buoyancy reduces joint loading while still requiring weight bearing
• Water resistance builds muscle without impact
• Warmth promotes circulation and reduces stiffness

Professional hydrotherapy (certified facility with underwater treadmill) is preferable to open-water swimming in the early phase -- controlled depth and therapist supervision improve safety.

Balance training (from week 3 to 4): TPLO Info confirms that once the dog is consistently bearing weight on the operated leg (typically around weeks 3 to 4), weight-shifting exercises can begin. Stand the dog on a non-slip surface and gently push the hindquarters from side to side -- the dog responds by shifting weight to maintain balance, which activates the hip stabilizers.

Phase 3: progressive strengthening (weeks 4 to 8)

Core strengthening and higher-level exercises

Veterinary Partner VIN confirms: Phase 2 (which overlaps with what most owners call weeks 3 to 8) involves core strengthening once sufficient basic strength is achieved.

Activities that begin in weeks 4 to 8 (vet-directed):

• Cavaletti poles: slow stepping over low poles placed on the ground; encourages deliberate limb placement and hip flexion
• Hill walking: gentle inclines on a leash (begin by week 6 in most protocols)
• Sit-to-stand exercises: transitions from sitting to standing strengthen hip extensors
• Balance board or wobble board exercises: builds proprioception and stabilizer strength

WM-Referrals TPLO physiotherapy protocol confirms: start hydrotherapy, cavaletti poles, and balance board work at week 6; progress to 30 to 40 minute walks by this phase.

6-week radiograph checkpoint: activity level in Phase 3 is calibrated against radiographic findings at the 6-week visit. If bone healing is progressing well, activities increase as above. If healing is delayed, Phase 3 activities are deferred.

Phase 4: return to function (weeks 8 to 12 and beyond)

Radiographic confirmation at 8 to 12 weeks

SustainableVet.org confirms: most structured plans complete within 8 to 12 weeks. By 4 to 6 months, most dogs regain full mobility including running and playing.

After the 12-week radiograph confirms bone healing:

• Progressive jogging on leash
• Longer off-leash exploration in controlled environments
• Return to normal activity for most dogs
• Athletes and working dogs continue structured rehab for 4 to 6 months

Professional rehabilitation vs. at-home protocols

When professional rehab is recommended

TPLO Info confirms: ideally every dog would follow up with a rehabilitation therapist so a doctor can develop an individualized protocol. Professional rehabilitation is particularly beneficial when:

• The dog is slow to bear weight
• Significant muscle atrophy is present at the 6-week recheck
• The dog is a working dog, sports dog, or agility competitor
• Progress has stalled at any phase of recovery

What professionals offer

Certified canine rehabilitation therapists (CCRPs) provide:

• Therapeutic laser (reduces inflammation, promotes tissue healing)
• Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) for pain management
• Controlled underwater treadmill protocols
• Individualized exercise prescription based on daily assessment
• Early detection of complications (inappropriate gait patterns, asymmetric muscle development)

At-home protocols

At-home rehabilitation following the vet's guidelines is appropriate for most dogs.

The core elements -- short leash walks, PROM exercises, cold therapy, gradual activity increase, and balance work -- are all achievable at home with proper instruction.

For the recovery timeline overview, see what to expect after TPLO surgery in dogs. For PROM exercises specifically, see PROM exercises for dogs after TPLO surgery.

For range-of-motion exercises, see TPLO range-of-motion exercises for dogs. For rehab exercise detail, see TPLO rehab exercises for dogs.

Frequently asked questions

Can physical therapy start before the incision heals?

Yes -- the early elements (leash walking, cold therapy, and PROM exercises) begin before the incision is fully healed, typically from day 1 to 5 onward.

Hydrotherapy and balance work require incision healing confirmation, typically at the 2-week recheck.

Is professional physical therapy necessary for TPLO recovery?

Not strictly necessary for all dogs, but beneficial for those recovering slowly, those with significant muscle atrophy, and working or sport dogs. At-home protocols following vet instructions are appropriate for most dogs.

Professional rehab adds precision and advanced modalities.

How often should my dog have hydrotherapy sessions?

Typically 1 to 3 times per week during the active rehabilitation phase (weeks 2 to 8). Frequency depends on the dog's response, transportation constraints, and cost.

Each session's therapeutic benefit persists for several days, so daily hydrotherapy is not required.

What if my dog refuses to use the leg despite physical therapy?

Persistent non-weight-bearing beyond 3 to 4 weeks warrants veterinary investigation. Possible causes include inadequate pain control, implant complication, late meniscal tear, or infection.

Physical therapy cannot proceed normally until the underlying cause of non-weight-bearing is addressed.

Can I use a swimming pool at home for hydrotherapy?

Only with vet guidance and with the dog supervised at all times. Open water swimming is less controlled than an underwater treadmill.

Risks include the dog launching themselves off the pool edge (impact on landing), inability to control depth, and water contamination of the incision if not fully healed.

Resources

• TPLO Info. Rehabilitation After TPLO Surgery. tploinfo.com
• Veterinary Partner VIN. Physical Rehabilitation of Dogs Following TPLO. veterinarypartner.vin.com
• SustainableVet. TPLO Rehab Exercises for Dogs. sustainablevet.org
• WM Referrals. Post-operative Rehabilitation After TPLO. wm-referrals.com

After your dog undergoes TPLO surgery, you may wonder when it is safe to bathe them. TPLO surgery is a common procedure to repair a torn cranial cruciate ligament in dogs. Proper post-operative care, including bathing, is essential to ensure a smooth recovery and avoid complications.

This article explains when you can bathe your dog after TPLO surgery, how to protect the surgical site, and what precautions to take during the healing process. You will learn practical tips to keep your dog clean without risking infection or delayed healing.

When Can I Bathe My Dog After TPLO Surgery?

The general recommendation is to avoid bathing your dog for at least 10 to 14 days after TPLO surgery. This time allows the incision to begin healing and reduces the risk of infection. Bathing too early can expose the wound to moisture and bacteria, which can cause complications.

Once the incision is fully closed and your veterinarian gives the go-ahead, you can bathe your dog carefully. It is important to keep the surgical site dry and clean during the initial healing phase.

• Healing time frame: Most veterinarians advise waiting 10 to 14 days before bathing to allow the incision to close properly and reduce infection risk.
• Veterinary approval: Always consult your vet before bathing to ensure the wound has healed enough for water exposure.
• Incision protection: Keep the surgical site dry and avoid direct water contact until fully healed to prevent complications.
• Signs of healing: Look for a dry, closed incision without redness or discharge before considering a bath.

Following these guidelines helps protect your dog’s surgical site and supports a healthy recovery.

How Should I Protect My Dog’s Incision When Bathing?

When your vet approves bathing, protecting the incision is crucial. You want to avoid water, soap, or shampoo reaching the surgical site. Using gentle methods can keep your dog clean without risking infection or irritation.

Proper protection also helps prevent your dog from licking or scratching the incision, which can delay healing.

• Use waterproof covers: Apply a waterproof bandage or plastic wrap over the incision to keep it dry during baths.
• Gentle cleaning: Use a damp cloth to clean areas away from the incision instead of full baths initially.
• Mild shampoos: Choose vet-recommended, gentle shampoos to avoid skin irritation around the surgery site.
• Dry thoroughly: After bathing, dry your dog carefully, especially near the incision, to prevent moisture buildup.

These steps help maintain cleanliness while protecting the surgical site during recovery.

What Are the Risks of Bathing Too Soon After TPLO Surgery?

Bathing your dog too soon after TPLO surgery can lead to several complications. The main concern is infection, which can delay healing or require additional treatment. Moisture can also weaken the incision and cause the sutures or staples to loosen.

Understanding these risks helps you avoid mistakes that could harm your dog’s recovery.

• Infection risk: Water exposure can introduce bacteria into the incision, causing infection and inflammation.
• Delayed healing: Moisture can soften the skin and slow the natural healing process of the wound.
• Suture damage: Wet sutures or staples may loosen or fall out prematurely, risking wound reopening.
• Increased discomfort: Bathing too early can cause pain or irritation at the surgery site, stressing your dog.

Waiting the recommended time and following vet advice reduces these risks significantly.

How Can I Keep My Dog Clean Without Bathing After Surgery?

Since full baths are not recommended immediately after TPLO surgery, there are alternative ways to keep your dog clean. These methods help maintain hygiene without exposing the incision to water.

Using gentle cleaning techniques and monitoring your dog’s activity can keep them comfortable and clean during recovery.

• Spot cleaning: Use a damp cloth or pet wipes to clean dirty areas away from the incision gently.
• Dry shampoo: Apply vet-approved dry shampoo powders or sprays to absorb oils and dirt without water.
• Limit outdoor exposure: Avoid muddy or wet areas to keep your dog cleaner between cleanings.
• Regular brushing: Brush your dog’s coat to remove dirt and loose hair, promoting cleanliness without bathing.

These alternatives help maintain hygiene while protecting the surgical site during healing.

What Signs Should I Watch for Around the Incision?

Monitoring your dog’s incision daily is important to catch any problems early. Knowing what signs indicate infection or delayed healing can help you seek veterinary care promptly.

Early detection of issues can prevent complications and support a faster recovery.

• Redness and swelling: Persistent or worsening redness and swelling around the incision may signal infection.
• Discharge or odor: Any pus, blood, or foul smell from the wound requires immediate veterinary attention.
• Excessive licking: If your dog licks or chews the incision excessively, it can cause damage and delay healing.
• Opening of the wound: If the incision starts to open or bleed, contact your vet right away.

Keeping a close eye on these signs ensures timely care and prevents serious complications.

How Can I Help My Dog Stay Comfortable During Recovery?

Comfort is key to a smooth recovery after TPLO surgery. Managing pain, limiting activity, and protecting the incision all contribute to your dog’s well-being.

Taking simple steps can reduce stress and support healing during this critical time.

• Pain management: Follow your vet’s instructions on pain medications to keep your dog comfortable.
• Restricted activity: Limit running, jumping, and rough play to prevent strain on the surgery site.
• Use an Elizabethan collar: Prevent your dog from licking or biting the incision with a cone or collar.
• Provide a clean resting area: Keep your dog’s bedding clean and dry to avoid contamination of the wound.

These measures help your dog heal faster and reduce the chance of complications.

Conclusion

Bathing your dog after TPLO surgery requires careful timing and protection of the surgical site. Waiting at least 10 to 14 days before bathing helps prevent infection and supports proper healing. Always follow your veterinarian’s advice and watch the incision closely for any signs of problems.

Using alternative cleaning methods and protecting the incision during baths ensures your dog stays clean and comfortable throughout recovery. With proper care, your dog can heal well and return to normal activities safely.

FAQs

Can I use a wet cloth to clean my dog before the incision heals?

Yes, you can use a damp cloth to gently clean areas away from the incision, but avoid touching or wetting the surgical site until fully healed.

When can my dog swim again after TPLO surgery?

Swimming should be avoided until the incision is fully healed and your vet approves, usually several weeks after surgery to prevent infection and injury.

What should I do if the incision gets wet accidentally?

If the incision gets wet, dry it gently with a clean towel and contact your vet for advice to prevent infection or complications.

Are there special shampoos recommended after TPLO surgery?

Use mild, vet-approved shampoos that are gentle on sensitive skin and avoid harsh chemicals that could irritate the incision area.

How often should I check my dog’s incision during recovery?

Check the incision at least once daily for redness, swelling, discharge, or other signs of infection to catch problems early and seek veterinary care if needed.